Agriculture is a leading cause of biodiversity loss and significantly impacts freshwater biodiversity through many stressors acting locally and on the landscape scale. The individual effects of these numerous stressors are often difficult to disentangle and quantify, as they might have nonlinear impacts on biodiversity. Within agroecosystems, ponds are biodiversity hotspots providing habitat for many freshwater species and resting or feeding places for terrestrial organisms. Ponds are strongly influenced by their terrestrial surroundings, and understanding the determinants of biodiversity in agricultural landscapes remains difficult but crucial for improving conservation policies and actions. We aimed to identify the main effects of environmental and spatial variables on α-, β-, and γ-diversities of macroinvertebrate communities inhabiting ponds (n = 42) in an agricultural landscape in the Northeast Germany, and to quantify the respective roles of taxonomic turnover and nestedness in the pondscape. We disentangled the nonlinear effects of a wide range of environmental and spatial variables on macroinvertebrate α- and β-biodiversity. Our results show that α-diversity is impaired by eutrophication (phosphate and nitrogen) and that overshaded ponds support impoverished macroinvertebrate biota. The share of arable land in the ponds' surroundings decreases β-diversity (i.e., dissimilarity in community), while β-diversity is higher in shallower ponds. Moreover, we found that β-diversity is mainly driven by taxonomic turnover and that ponds embedded in arable fields support local and regional diversity. Our findings highlight the importance of such ponds for supporting biodiversity, identify the main stressors related to human activities (eutrophication), and emphasize the need for a large number of ponds in the landscape to conserve biodiversity. Small freshwater systems in agricultural landscapes challenge us to compromise between human demands and nature conservation worldwide. Identifying and quantifying the effects of environmental variables on biodiversity inhabiting those ecosystems can help address threats impacting freshwater life with more effective management of pondscapes.
