The article gives an analysis of the possibilities and limits of the concept of ecological modernization. The concept was used already in the early 1980s to describe the common field of ecology and economy. The focus was on technological progress reducing the environmental impact of production and consumption. Hajer and other authors had a broader definition of the concept. But it could make sense to differentiate technical / non-technical solutions (the latter being less compatible with the economic system). The limits to eco-modernization strategies and the need for “structural” solutions could possibly better be demonstrated by the earlier concept. A policy for ecological modernization may be defined as the sum of government actions aimed to stimulate environmental innovations and their diffusion. Higher eco- efficiency - instead of end-of-pipe measures - is its main objective. But innovation is a highly difficult task, especially for governments. No simple “instrumentalistic” solution is available. Therefore, a more complex policy pattern will be necessary. A more global policy approach would be the stimulation of “green” lead markets. As a rule a complex interplay between political and technical innovation and diffusion can be observed.

This case study investigates innovation processes and networks around the development and market introduction of a new eco-efficient fertilizer. The innovation offers a technical-fix solution to combine effective fertilizer application in modern agriculture and horticulture with environmental protection by reducing nitrogen losses with the help of ammonium stabilisators that show no significant (eco-)toxicological effects. The case study describes the period 1995 - 1999 relevant for this environmental innovation. Just those actors with the scientific competences required belonged to a loose innovation network which one could expect to participate in a cooperative R&D; project with rather strict labour division, well coordinated and cofunded by BASF as its key actor. The innovation process met no serious obstacles in its technical and its social dimension, though finally some retardation in its time dimension, concerning licensing of the new fertilizer. Willingness to compromise was prevalent in case of diverging actor interests, and substantial controversy could be hardly found in the whole innovation process. Respective actors in environmental, technology, and agricultural policy cared for more or less appropriate framework conditions of the innovation project but were hardly involved themselves in the genuine innovation network. Technology policy cared for launching and co-funding the project developing eco-efficient fertilizers especially for economic reasons. Concerning the main research question of the case study, no serious attempts of substantive interpolicy coordination of environmental policy and ecology-oriented technology policy could be identified.

Dieser Essay zielt - in klarer Unterscheidung gegenüber der kurz anzusprechenden soziologischen Untersuchung von Nachhaltigkeitskonzepten und -diskursen sozialer Akteure - darauf ab, die analytische Struktur und den begrifflich noch eindeutig bestimmbaren Gehalt des Konzepts einer nachhaltigen Entwicklung auf allgemeiner Ebene möglichst präzise herauszuarbeiten, ohne auf spezifische typische Problemstellungen (z.B. die Vereinbarkeit von Wirtschaftswachstum und nachhaltiger Entwicklung) einzugehen. Das Konzept sustainable development wird daher im Hinblick auf folgende Gesichtspunkte erörtert: seine formale Begrifflichkeit (Begriffs- und Konzeptanalyse), Herausarbeitung seiner zentralen Bezugsdimensionen (Belastungsgrenzen, Verteilungsgerechtigkeit, Umsetzungsstrategien), Darstellung der Struktur möglicher substantieller Aussagen (Negativbestimmung, formale Orientierung, situative Ausfüllung, trade-offs), Beschreibung seiner substantiellen Dimensionen (ökologische, soziale, wirtschaftliche Nachhaltigkeit) und die Struktur möglicher Strategien nachhaltiger Entwicklung (Anschlussfähigkeit, Übergangsprobleme, Pfadabhängigkeit). Dieses Vorgehen wird am Beispiel nachhaltiger Energieversorgung plausibilisiert. Abschließend wird nach dem Wert dieser analytischen Vorgehensweise für eine rationale Gestaltung sozialer Nachhaltigkeitsdiskurse gefragt.

Der Beitrag gibt – unter Rückgriff auf eigene Forschungen zum Thema – einen Überblick über Möglichkeiten und Grenzen des für die Umweltstrategie wichtig gewordenen Konzepts der „ökologische Modernisierung“. Der Begriff beschreibt in seiner ursprünglichen Fassung das große Segment möglicher Umweltverbesserungen, die durch technischen Fortschritt jenseits von End-of- pipe-Ansätzen und diesseits von weitergehenden strukturellen Lösungen zu erzielen sind. Dabei kommt dem Mechanismus der Innovationsdiffusion eine spezielle Bedeutung zu, zumal dann, wenn es um die Entwicklung einer globalen Strategie der ökologischen Modernisierung geht. Von besonderem Interesse ist das Wechselspiel von Politik und Technik in diesem Prozess. In aller Regel weisen technisch lösbare Umweltprobleme umweltpolitisch einen geringeren Schwierigkeitsgrad auf als solche, die strukturelle Eingriffe erfordern. Der Begriff der ökologischen Modernisierung könnte – im Gegensatz zu weiteren Fassungen - dieses ökonomischtechnische Potenzial akzentuieren und so die Abgrenzung des schwierigeren Pensums eines ökologischen Struktur- und Lebensstilwandels erleichtern.

This case study investigates bargaining and innovation processes around efforts to reduce and to substitute production and use of EDTA between 1985 and 1999. Environmental policy succeeded in stimulating efforts to significantly reduce EDTA release, in particular by aspiring to a voluntary declaration and subsequent voluntary agreements. Supported by continuous debate in EDTA meetings and by the eigendynamic of commitments made by participating actors, these efforts led to substantial results, though not as much as had been envisaged. The environmental innovations arising typically were technical process innovations or a combination of product and process innovation rearranging and optimising chemical processes in various industries using EDTA. Concerning producers and suppliers of chelating agents, their EDTArelated innovative efforts were embedded in general research programs elucidating the pronounced strategic capabilities of large corporations in managing innovations. Without significant public funding policy making and interpolicy coordination of environmental policy and ecology-oriented technology policy in most cases had at best an indirect impact on these innovation processes reinforcing them to some degree by promoting regulatory framework conditions and monitoring programs. Consequently, various relatively separated knowledge, business and regulatory networks originated from these EDTA-related innovative efforts. Comparing different R&D; projects leading to technically viable environmental innovations of reducing, substituting, or degrading EDTA (use), the central importance of corporate capacities and market opportunities for their successful diffusion becomes obvious. Thus, serious obstacles to the innovation processes referred more to their social than to their technical and time dimension. Altogether, environmental policy successfully organised multiple efforts to reduce EDTA release on the basis of voluntary agreements in Germany. These voluntary agreements enhanced, but did hardly induce corresponding environmental innovations, mainly in industry, and also contributed to learning processes among the actors, participating in EDTA discourse and politics, in the direction of a more holistic (policy) perspective towards ecological sustainability.

The case studies investigate political bargaining as well as innovation processes around efforts to reduce environmental pollution in pulp production. The development and diffusion of corresponding environmental technologies depend on their technical viability, their economic viability, the (global) socioeconomic structures of the pulp and paper industry, environmental policy regulations, and situational circumstances, reflecting the interests and relative power of actors involved. Taking into account a time period of nearly 30 years (1970 - 2000) various innovative efforts are summarized. These environmental innovations are examples of different approaches and foci to deal with environmental problems of pulp production by appropriate technologies, namely wastewater purification by aluminium oxide or by combined aerobic and anaerobic biological treatment, substitution of molecular chlorine bleaching by peroxide bleaching or by high pressure oxygen bleaching, and alternative pulping technologies, i.e. the ASAM process and the Organocell process. Because structural framework conditions, particularly the availability of public funds, left considerable scope of action, situational conditions often paved the way for starting an environmental R&D; project and for its success or failure. In the 1970s the (perceived) pressure of environmental problems was so strong that environmental regulation of pulp production was considered necessary. Because of fierce competition on the world market, however, the pulp industry could hardly afford on a short-term basis the investments required for environmental protection measures without public subsidies. Therefore, ETP contributed significant funding to allow for the development of a considerable number of technological options in the 1970s and 1980s. Most of them failed, however, for various reasons, but some of them succeeded to become established practice since about the 1990s. EP and ETP played a key role in achieving large reductions of ecologically hazardous substances emitted during pulp production, by introducing a wastewater levy, by setting increasingly tighter environmental (emission and ambient quality control) standards, and by funding the development of corresponding environmental technologies. A good deal of coordination of EP and ETP took place, which influenced both the standard setting process and technology development. Whereas EP activities met fierce opposition of the pulp and paper industry in the 1970s and 1980s, involvement in related bargaining processes, in conjunction with an increasing environmental concern and a corresponding greening of industry in general, led to social learning processes of this industry which resulted in growing commitment and a voluntary declaration in favour of ecologically sound pulp production in the 1990s. A campaign of Greenpeace attacking environmental problems of pulp and paper production and public debate on chlorine-free paper probably enhanced this change in attitude. However, the corresponding actual demand of publishers for chlorine- free paper and clear environmental regulations were the main driving forces for improved environmental protection and consciousness in pulp production. Thus, different phases of development with varying attitudes and approaches of the main actors towards environmental protection and technology development in pulp production can be distinguished: environmental problem pressure and installation of available (end-of-pipe) technologies (1970-1980), generous public funding of environmental technology development and preparation of environmental regulation (1975- 1985), passing and enhancing environmental standards and diffusion of environmental innovations (1980-1995), further progress and differentiation of environmental regulation and environmental technologies applied (1990-2000). These changing contextual conditions implied differing policy strategies and tactics of EP and ETP.