Distinctive factors contributing to psychological distress in second-generation offspring of Holocaust survivors: Posttraumatic stress and sense of coherence

Abstract

The psychological impact of historical trauma can be passed on to future generations. The simultaneous presence of historical and individual trauma may increase psychological distress, especially in older adults. Older age potentially represents a phase of life with increased challenges, distress, life review, and reminiscence. Though both historical and individual trauma appear to contribute to psychological distress, a strong sense of coherence (SOC) may reduce psychological distress and posttraumatic stress in older age and in the context of historical trauma. We conducted a cross-sectional online survey among offspring of Holocaust survivors (OHS) from Germany, Israel, and the United States, focusing on the second generation and individuals aged 60–80 years who reported having survived individual trauma. Descriptive statistics, zero-order correlation analyses, and multiple regression were used to investigate factors influencing psychological distress, including gender, age, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, past victimization, family Holocaust knowledge, and SOC (balance, manageability, and reflection). The sample comprised 116 participants (70.1% female- identified, Mage = 67.85 years, SD = 4.45, range: 60–79 years). Multiple regression indicated that PTSD symptoms, B = 2.78, β = .58 (SE = .37), p < .001, and manageability, B = −0.54, β = −.20 (SE = .25), p = .034, were significantly associated with psychological distress. The final model accounted for 50.5% of the total variance in current psychological distress among older second-generation OHS. These findings highlight the importance of individual risk and protective factors in understanding distress among older people in the context of historical trauma.